The Bible is nothing if not a small library of books very much focused on God. God is presented as the Creator of the Universe, the architect of the planet earth 鈥� humanity鈥檚 home 鈥� and of humanity itself. In the Bible God has revealed his character, his law, his wisdom, his grace, and his redemptive purposes. Through his prophets God has spoken to humanity in a variety of circumstances and on a great many themes and topics. God has rebuked humanity, including his own special people Israel, for its corrupt and sinful activities. Chief among these is humanity鈥檚 tendency to indulge in idolatry, either in worshipping various gods or in making idols that represent these gods. There are passages in the Bible where humanity is rebuked for ignoring God. Yet curiously, the Bible says very little about atheism, the belief that there is no God.
Of course, having said that, a well-known verse immediately comes to mind: 鈥淭he fool says in his heart, 鈥楾here is no God鈥�.鈥� The verse in fact occurs in two passages in the book of Psalms (at 14:1 and 53:1, verses in this article are from the RSV translation). Psalms 14 and 53 are slightly different versions of the same psalm, appearing in two distinct books (books 1 and 2) that make up the five books of the Psalter. Most commentators believe Psalm 14 is closer to the original form of the psalm. In yet another psalm the same assertion appears. According to Psalm 10 we are told that the thoughts of the wicked may be summed up as 鈥淭here is no God鈥� and 鈥淕od has forgotten, he has hidden his face, he will never see it鈥� (vv. 4, 11).
What 聽is the meaning of the bold assertion, 鈥淭here is no God鈥�? Commentators rightly maintain that the statement is not a literal denial of the existence of God (or of gods), but a description of the wicked, who live and behave as though God takes no notice of human behavior. The respective contexts of Psalms 10, 14, and 53 support this interpretation. According to Psalm 10 the 鈥渨icked hotly pursue the poor鈥� and the 鈥渕an greedy for gain curses and renounces the Lord鈥� (vv. 2, 3). The wicked man believes that God 鈥渨ill never see鈥� his evil deeds (v. 4). Moreover, this man believes that he will never encounter adversity, but will get away with theft and murder (vv. 6, 8, 9). According to Psalms 14 and 53 the man who says there is no God is corrupt, is a liar, and never does good. It is no surprise that the Apostle Paul cites portions of these psalms in order to make his point that no human is righteous and that none seeks for God (Rom 3:10鈥�12).
Similar 聽thoughts are expressed elsewhere in 聽the 聽Hebrew Bible. According to Psalm 73 the wicked ask, 鈥淗ow can God know? Is there knowledge in the Most High?鈥� (v. 11). We find the same idea in the Prophets. Jeremiah declares : 鈥淭hey have spoken falsely of the Lord, and have said, 鈥楬e will do nothing ; no evil will come upon us, nor shall we see sword or famine鈥欌�� (5:12), 聽while in Zephaniah the Lord warns that he will punish men 鈥渨ho say in their hearts, 鈥楾he Lord will not do good, nor will he do ill鈥欌�� (1:12), 聽that is, the Lord will do nothing in response to human behavior, whether to reward the righteous or punish the wicked. In short, the declaration 鈥淭here is no God鈥� is an expression of practical atheism, of living as though God is distant and indifferent.
Early Jewish interpreters understood the declaration 鈥淭here is no God鈥� the same way. This is seen clearly in the Aramaic paraphrase of the Psalter. According to this version (called the Targum), the thinking, 鈥淭here is no God,鈥� implies the assumption on the part of the wicked person that 鈥渘one of his thoughts are revealed before the Lord鈥� (Tg. Ps 10:4). In Tg. Ps 14:1 the fool鈥檚 declaration that 鈥淭here is no God鈥� is paraphrased to read, 鈥淭here is no rule of God in the land.鈥� Though expressed differently, the same point is made in Tg. Ps 53:1, 鈥淭he fool has said in his heart that God does not punish him.鈥�
Accordingly, the atheists of the Bible are those who believe God takes no notice of human behavior, either to reward or to punish. The wicked man, therefore, may do as he pleases. He need not fear that God will observe or take action against him. The fool鈥檚 assertion that 鈥淭here is no God鈥� is not an expression of philosophical atheism but rather a reckless assumption that God takes no interest in human affairs.
In late antiquity things began to change. To be sure, belief in God (or, in most cases, in the gods) remained almost universal. Explicit and outright atheism is very hard to detect in the classical world of late antiquity (though see the discussion of Philo below). Nevertheless, in some philosophical circles traditional beliefs about the gods were beginning to be questioned. A small number of philosophers and writers in the Greek world questioned the existence of the traditional gods, that is, the gods of Olympus. For example, some claimed that Epicurus, who publicly taught that the gods existed but took no notice of human affairs, was really an atheist but kept this opinion private out of fear of the public (apud Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods 聽1.85.121). 聽In an academic setting as described in Plato the question of the existence of gods or God was raised (Apology 26c).
Elsewhere Plato speaks of contemporaries who believe that the world is governed by chance, not gods, and that morality is man-made, not divine (Laws 10, 889a鈥�890a). Similarly, in a play by Critias a character asserts that the gods are an invention designed to deter crime that other wise would go undetected and therefore unpunished (Sisyphus frag. 19). Plato also speaks of those (like 鈥減ublic鈥� Epicurus) who assert that the gods exist but are indifferent to humanity (Laws 10, 885b, 899d-e). Here we have a practical atheism not unlike what we see in the Hebrew Psalms.
Although theism was almost universal in the Mediterranean world of late antiquity, a 鈥渧ocabulary of atheism,鈥� one might say, did emerge. The two principal words are atheos, an adjective that means 鈥済odless鈥� or 鈥渦ngodly,鈥� and 补迟丑别辞迟脓蝉, 聽an adjective that means 鈥渦ngodliness.鈥� Neither word implies the idea that there is no god. The words almost always are used in reference to the impious or to those who fail to honor the gods properly. Atheos can also be in reference to a person (or thing) that has been abandoned by the gods, i.e., he is a man who is 鈥渨ithout god.鈥� We find an example of this use in Sophocles (Oedipus Tyrannus 662), as well as in later magical texts (e.g ., P GM 36.319: 鈥淚 want to flee the godless [atheos] Typhon鈥�; ibid. 36.337: 鈥渃onsume with fire the godless [atheos] Typhon鈥�). 聽Examples of atheos meaning showing the gods no respect are found in Sophocles (Trachiniae 1038), 聽Aristophanes (Thesmorphoriazusae 671), and Euripides (Orestes 916).
The 聽vocabulary of atheism in late antiquity also includes the adjectives atheei, meaning 鈥渨ithout God (or the gods)鈥� or 鈥渨ithout the assistance of the gods,鈥� 聽atheia (same as 补迟丑别辞迟脓蝉) meaning 鈥渋mpious鈥� or 鈥渨ithout respect for the gods,鈥� and atheiastos, meaning 鈥渦ninspired by God (or the gods).鈥�
We encounter some of this vocabulary in Jewish and Christian literature. For example, in the Sibylline Oracles pagan temples are said to be 鈥済odless鈥� (3:32). 聽Later oracles in this diverse collection refer to 鈥済odless men鈥� (5:309), 鈥済odless laws鈥� (8:106),聽 and 鈥済odless service鈥� (8:394). 聽The Testament 聽of Solomon, a late first-century Jewish pseudepigraphon, refers to a 鈥済odless angel鈥� (6:3). 聽These examples make use of the adjective atheos. A second-century Christian pseudepigraphon declares, 鈥淸S]inful, unrighteous, and impious [ is] the man who falls away from piety and righteousness and godliness鈥� (Apocryphon of Ezekiel 4:1). Here, 鈥渋mpious鈥� translates 补迟丑别辞迟脓蝉.
In the writings of Philo of Alexandria, the Jewish apologist and allegorist who lived at the turn of the era, most occurrences of atheos mean 鈥渨ithout 聽god,鈥� 鈥渁theistic 聽opinions鈥� (Allegorical 聽Interpretation 1.51), 聽鈥渁theistic reasonings鈥� ( ibid. 2.57), 鈥渋mpious 聽opinion鈥� (ibid.3.13), 鈥渋mpious disposition鈥� ( ibid. 3.212), and the like. Philo also makes use of 补迟丑别辞迟脓蝉 in the sense of 鈥渋mpious鈥� or 鈥済odlessness鈥� (e.g .,聽 Allegorical Interpretation 3.33, 108; On the Sacrifices of Cain and Abel 69; On the Posterity of Cain 2, 52; That God is Unchangeable 21; On Drunkennes 18, 78; On the Confussion of Tongues 2, 114, 121, etc.).
But Philo does make use of atheos and 补迟丑别辞迟脓蝉 in contexts where he speaks of atheism, meaning belief that God does not exist. A half dozen passages are worth considering, even if very briefly. The first appears in Philo鈥檚 discussion of creation: 聽鈥淢oses 聽teaches us also many other things, and especially five most beautiful lessons which are superior to all others. In the first place, for the sake of convicting the atheists [atheoi], he teaches us that the Deity [theios] has a real being and existence鈥� (Creation 170). In this context Philo speaks of two types of atheists. The first are those of 鈥渢wo minds,鈥� by which he means what we would probably call agnostics, that is, people who are not sure if God exists. But Philo also speaks of those who assert that the 鈥淒eity does not exist at all, but that it is a mere assertion of men obscuring the truth with myth and fiction鈥� (ibid.). Here we have reference to true atheism in the philosophical sense.
Elsewhere Philo speaks critically 聽of 鈥渢he opinion which denies any god [atheos], and that which worships a multitude of gods . . . he who worships no god at all is barren, and he who worships a multitude is the son of a harlot鈥� (On the Migration of Abraham 69). Indeed, according to Philo, 鈥淚f you know it not, you are an atheist [atheos], and atheism [补迟丑别辞迟脓蝉] is the beginning of all iniquity 鈥� (On the Decalogue 91). In another context, Philo describes atheism, often associated with men who study philosophy, as 鈥渢he greatest of all vices鈥� (On the Special Laws 1.32). Later, he speaks disparagingly of those 鈥渨ho are utterly atheistic鈥�(ibid. 1.334).
The last example to be considered is reminiscent of the charges brought against Socrates. Philo speaks of one Theodorus :
It is said that Theodorus, who was surnamed the Atheist [atheos], when he was banished from Athens, and had come to the court of Lysimachus, when one of those in power there reproached him with his banishment, mentioning the cause of it too, namely, that he had been expelled because he had been condemned for atheism [补迟丑别辞迟脓蝉] 聽and for corrupting the youth. (That Every Good Person is Free 127)
To advocate atheism, it聽 is understood, is to corrupt society. This was the very accusation leveled against Socrates, for which the great philosopher was forced to drink hemlock (Plato, Phaedo 117补鈥�118补).
We may infer from these passages that there were indeed individuals, probably mostly philosophers, known to Philo in Alexandria, Egypt, and probably elsewhere who openly advocated atheism. They were not especially influential, 聽for there is little 聽reaction to them and no body of atheistic literature, if there ever was one, has survived. The language of atheism, that is, principally words like atheos and 补迟丑别辞迟脓蝉, was utilized almost exclusively in reference to behavior and morals.
The word atheos appears but once in the writings that make up the New Testament. In his letter 聽to the church of Ephesus Paul reminds the Gentile members : 鈥淸R]emember that you were at that time separated from Christ, 聽alienated from the commonwealth of Israel, and strangers to the covenants of promise, having no hope and without God [atheoi] 聽in the world鈥� (Eph 2:12). 聽In describing them in their pre- Christian life as atheoi (鈥渨ithout God鈥�) Paul does not imply that these Gentiles were atheists, that is, people who did not believe in God or in the gods. He simply means that they were estranged from the God of Israel, the Father of Jesus the Messiah.
The perspective presupposed in Eph 2:12 is not too different from what we observe in the book of Acts, where Paul addresses the men of Athens at Mars Hill : 鈥淢en of Athens, I perceive that in every way you are very religious. For as I passed along, and observed the objects of your worship, I found also an altar with this inscription, 鈥楾o an unknown god.鈥� What therefore you worship as unknown, this I proclaim to you鈥� (Acts 17:22鈥�23). The men of Athens were very interested in gods and divinities, as seen by the numerous statues, temples, and inscriptions in and around the market place and the Acropolis. To underscore his point, Paul calls attention to the inscription that reads, 鈥淭o an unknown god.鈥� Today visitors to the Acropolis and the market (or agora) that is situated at its foot can see the remains of many of these temples, inscriptions, and statues of various gods.
We 聽should assume that聽 the perspective of the Ephesians was essentially the same as that of the Athenians. That 聽is to say, they were religious, they built and supported various temples, and they devoted themselves to a host of divinities. In short, they were, like the Athenians, 鈥渧ery religious鈥� 聽(Greek : 聽deisidaimonesteros 聽鈥� 鈥渧ery [concerned 聽with] divinities and spirits鈥�), but they were nonetheless without God. The true God, the God of Israel and Father of Jesus the Messiah, was 鈥渦nknown鈥� to the people of Ephesus. Hence, in their pre- Christian existence these people were atheoi, 鈥渨ithout 聽God.鈥� In responding to the gospel they became acquainted with God and came to share in the promises and covenants that God gave Israel long ago.
By the beginning of the second century, if not earlier, pagans were describing Christians as atheoi, 鈥渁theists,鈥� 聽for denying the existence of the Greco -Roman gods. The charge was sometimes leveled against the Jews too in the first century and beyond (e.g.,聽 Apollonius Molon, apud Josephus, Against 聽Apion 2.15; 聽Dio Cassius, Roman History 67.14.1鈥�3; 聽Julian 聽the 聽Apostate,聽 Against 聽the 聽Galileans 聽43B). 聽The accusation of atheism in large part justified the state鈥檚 persecution of Christians.
Closely related to the denial of the gods was the refusal to confess Caesar as Lord or as divine. In the Roman world Caesar was regarded as divine, as in some sense a 鈥渟on of god,鈥� and as high priest (pontifex maximus) who represented the people to the gods. Christians denied both the gods and the divinity of Caesar, which provoked the state and led to severe persecution and martyrdom.
Two of the earliest and best known Christian martyrs accused on the grounds of atheism 鈥� either denying the gods or denying the divinity of the emperor or denying both 鈥� were Ignatius (d. c. 110) and Polycarp (d. 155). In custody and on his way to Rome to stand trial Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in Syria, wrote letters to six churches and one letter to Polycarp. Eusebius tells us without providing details that Ignatius was taken to Rome and there was thrown to wild animals (Hist. Eccl. 聽3.36.1鈥�15). 聽In his letter to Polycarp (cf. ibid. 3.36.10) Ignatius writes, almost in passing , 鈥渙ur God ( is) Jesus Christ鈥� (To Polycarp 8:3). Such a confession implicitly contradicts the imperial doctrine, well attested on stone and papyrus, that Caesar is lord and god. In the latter part of the first century and on into the second century the Julio – Claudian emperors and the Flavian emperors were routinely called 鈥渓ord,鈥� 鈥済od,鈥� and 鈥渟on of god鈥� (e.g., for Augustus, see SB 401, BGU 628; for Tiberius, see SB 8317; for Claudius, see SB 4331; for Nero, see P.Oxy. 1021; for Vespasian, see SB 1927; P.Oxy. 112; for Titus, see SB 1016; P.Oxy. 1028; for Domitian, see SB 2084, P.Oxy. 2186).1聽聽Their 聽precedent-setting practice continued in the second century under Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines.
It is interesting to observe that the language of atheism appears in one of the letters of Ignatius, though not in reference to Christians. In two places in his letter to the church of Tralles Ignatius speaks of the godless :
I am sure that you agree with me regarding these matters, for I received a living example of your love and still have it with me in the person of your bishop, whose very demeanor is a great lesson and whose gentleness is his power; I think that even the godless [atheoi] respect him (Trallians 3:2).
Later in his letter, in reference to the Docetists who deny the reality of the bodily incarnation, Ignatius asks : 鈥淏ut if, as some atheists [atheoi], 聽that is, unbelievers, say, he suffered in appearance only…, why am I in chains ?鈥� ( ibid. 10:1). In the first passage Ignatius uses the word atheos as we have already seen many times. He has called pagans atheoi in the sense that the y are 鈥渨ithout 聽God.鈥� We see this in other Christian writings (e.g ., Clement of Alexandria , Paedagogos 3.11.80; Ps.- Clement, 贬辞尘颈濒颈别蝉听15.4; Sibylline 聽Oracles 8:395).
But the meaning of atheos in the second passage in the letter to the Trallians is harder to determine. Its use is admittedly ambiguous, meaning 聽either those who are without God or those who 聽deny the very existence of God. If the latter was Ignatius鈥檚 intent 聽(and I suspect it 聽was), then it 聽represents a sharp polemical thrust, for Docetists believed in the existence of God. But to deny the reality of the incarnation was, in the mind of Ignatius and many other early Christians, tantamount to the denial of God and so in a sense could be called a form of atheism.
A few decades later Polycarp himself is faced with the prospects of martyrdom. As had Ignatius before him, Polycarp refuses to confess the divinity or lordship of the emperor. Standing before his judges he is asked :
鈥榃hy, what harm is there in saying , 鈥楥aesar is Lord [kurios kaisar],鈥� and offering incense鈥� (and other words to this effect)鈥榓nd thereby saving yourself ?鈥� Now at first he gave them no answer. But when the y persisted, he said : 鈥業 am not about to do what you are suggesting to me鈥� (Mart. Poly. 8:2).
Polycarp served in the mid-second century as the bishop of Smyrna in Asia Minor (Izmir in modern Turkey). His refusal to confess the divinity of the emperor, as well as his refusal to worship the gods of the Greeks and Romans, led to the charge of atheism. According to the Martyrdom of Polycarp, written not long after the death of the bishop, we are told that the pagan multitude shouted against the Christians : 聽鈥淎way 聽with 聽the atheists [atheoi]! Find Polycarp !鈥� (Mart. Poly. 3:2; the story is retold in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 4.15.6; cf. 4.15.18). When Polycarp is brought before the Roman proconsul, the latter demands : 鈥淪wear by the divinity [tyche] of Caesar鈥� (Mart. Poly. 9:2; 聽10:1). Polycarp 聽of 聽course refuses (ibid. 聽9:1鈥�3).聽 聽The proconsul demands that Polycarp swear the oath to Caesar and revile Christ. His refusal to swear by the divinity of Caesar would have been interpreted as proof of the charge of atheism. In the trial that follows the crowds shout, 鈥淭his is the teacher of Asia , the father of the Christians, the destroyer of our gods [ho t艒n h膿meter艒n 聽the艒n kathairet膿s], 聽who teaches many not to sacrifice or worship鈥� ( ibid. 12:2). The bishop continues to refuse and so is executed.
The charge against Polycarp is quite remarkable. 聽His refusal to worship the Greek and 聽Roman gods, including 聽veneration of the Roman emperor, is according to Roman belief tantamount to destroying the gods. To the extent that what is said here in an admittedly rhetorical and apologetic text truly reflects pagan thinking, one can see why the charge of atheism was taken so seriously in late antiquity.
However, there is more than rhetoric and apologetic in play. We know 聽from 聽Governor Pliny鈥檚 聽letter 聽to 聽Emperor Trajan 聽(Epistles 10.96; c. 111 AD) that pagan sacrifice and cultic activity in parts of Pontus (central Asia Minor) had all but ceased thanks to Christian influence. It is to this problem that the accusation that Polycarp 鈥渢eaches many not to sacrifice or worship鈥� refers. Ever since the days of Paul, the Christian movement in Asia had a significant impact on religious culture (cf. Acts 19:17鈥�20).
From the mid-second century on pagans regularly accused Christians of atheism. In his First Apology (c. 155) Justin Martyr replies to this charge : 鈥淸W]e are called atheists [atheoi],鈥� though at the same time conceding and explaining, that 鈥渨e are atheists, so far as gods of (the pagans) are concerned, but not with respect to the most true God鈥� (1 Apol. 6.1). 鈥淲hat sober-minded man,鈥� Justin further argues, 鈥渨ill not acknowledge that we are not atheists [atheoi], worshipping as we do the Maker of this universe . . . 鈥� (ibid. 13.1). He adds further that 鈥渢hose who lived reasonably are Christians, even though the y have been thought atheists [atheoi]鈥� (ibid. 46.2). In his Second Apology (c. 161) Justin complains that Crescens the pagan philosopher unfairly describes Christians as 鈥渁theistic and impious [athe艒n kai aseb艒n]鈥� (2 Apol. 3; the story is retold in Eusebius, Hist. Eccl.聽4.16.3). Tatian (c. 160) complains too that the Greeks exclude Christians 鈥渇rom civic rights as if we were the most godless [补迟丑别艒迟补迟辞颈] of men鈥� (Address to the Greeks 27.1). Athenagoras (c. 177) devotes several chapters of his apology, in order to counter the charge that Christians are atheists (Concerning the Christians 4鈥�30).
The accusations and counter-accusations of atheism in late antiquity rarely had any thing to do with what 聽we moderns understand as atheism. Jews, Christians, and pagans all believed in the existence of God or gods. A few pagans may well have entertained philosophical atheism, but they were very few and their atheism seems largely to have been a reaction to the crude and contradictory nature of much of the polytheism of their day.
The real atheism of late antiquity was practical atheism, the belief that God or the gods were indifferent to human affairs or that God or the gods simply did not or could not observe human behavior. The practical atheism of late antiquity is not unlike the atheism that is reflected, as we have seen, in a few of the ancient Hebrew scriptures. Although people believe in God, they often live as if God is not present. The person who thinks and lives like that, says the Psalter, is a fool.
By way of conclusion, what is worth noting is that the practical atheism of the biblical period and late antiquity is much like the atheism of today. Most of humanity believes that God exists, but much of humanity lives as though God does not exist or, if he does, he takes little interest in human affairs. The atheism of today is much more than what we see in writings and pronouncements of atheist celebrities, such as Sam Harris and Richard Dawkins. Atheism is much more than an explicit denial of the existence of God. The atheism that should concern all who believe in God is the practical atheism reflected in the lives of many theists, including Christians. The fools are not limited to those who openly state, 鈥淭here is no God鈥�; they 聽include those who profess belief in God but live as though he does not exist.
1 SB refers to F. Preisigke et al., eds., Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunde aus 脛gypten (Strassburg : K. J. Tr眉bner, 1915鈥�); BGU refers to 脛gyptische Urkunden in den staatlichen Museen zu Berlin: Griechische Urkunden, vols. 1鈥�9 (Berlin: Weidmann, 1895鈥�1937); and P.Oxy. refers to B. P. Grenfell et al., eds., The Oxyrhynchus Papyri (London: Egypt Exploration Society, 1898鈥�). Numbers refer to the numbering of the primary texts, not to page numbers.
[Editor鈥檚 Note: Atheism image from Jan Matejko鈥檚 厂迟补艅肠锄测办, 1862, found at聽 .]